MODALS: CAN, MAY, MUST, HAVE TO

CAN	MUST
1) Ability I can drive 2) Possibility I can come	1) Obligation I must do my homework. 2) For an opinion that you think has a good possibility of being true. Look at his uniform. He must be a policeman.
MAY	HAVE TO
1) Probability She may come tomorrow. 2) In a very polite question May I open the window?	1) In the affirmative: HAVE TO has a meaning similar to MUST. I have to go to the school. 2) In the negative: HAVE TO has a different meaning: "you don't need to dot that" It's Sunday! I don't have to go to school.

TEST : Fill in the gaps with CAN/CAN'T, MAY/MAY NOT, MUST/MUSTN'T, HAVE TO/DON'T HAVE TO
JOHN: "_________ you come to the match this afternoon?"
PETER: "I'm sorry. I _________ . I _________ wash my father's car."
JOHN: "But it's raining! You _________ wash it!"
PETER: "I know, but my parents say the rain _________ stop soon. And I _________ go out with you tonight because I _________ go to my grandmother's birthday party and I _________ come back late."

ANSWERS

JOHN: "CAN you come to the match this afternoon?"
PETER: "I'm sorry. I can't . I MUST wash my father's car."
JOHN: "But it's raining! You DON'T HAVE TO wash it!"
PETER: "I know, but my parents say the rain MAY stop soon. And I CAN'T go out with you tonight because I MUST go to my grandmother's birthday party and I MAY come back late."

Causative constructions

When one does not carry out an action oneself but rather has the action done by someone else, this is expressed by a causative construction.
> In English it is the verb "to have" that introduces the causative: "to have" (conjuguated) + direct objet (noun or pronoun) + main verb (in its past participle form):
We'll have a monument erected on this site. I had my hair cut.

> When one wishes to designate the agent of the action (the person who has carried out the described action), there are two possibilities:
1. -- "to have" (conjuguated) + direct objet (noun or pronoun) + main verb (in its past participle form) + "by" + agent (usually not as a pronoun):
The professor had the work done by his lab assistants. I had it done by my employees.

2. -- "to have" (conjuguated) + agent (as a direct object noun or pronoun) + main verb (in its infinitive form) + the object (also in the form of a direct object noun or pronoun)
The professor had his students write an essay. I had him do it.

Note: Especially in spoken English, the verb "to get" often replaces "to have," in which case "to" is added to the infinitive (but not before past participles). This construction also suggests that it may be (or have been) difficult to produce a certain reaction on the part of the agent:
We'll get a monument erected on this site. The professor got his students to write an essay.

> When one wishes to express a change in temperament or in general conditions, it is the construction "to make + adjectif" which is used:
That letter made her sad. He makes me furious! That new problem made negotiations really hard!

TEST
Build causatives sentences, as in this example: He went to the hairdresser's (His father...) -> His father had him go to the hairdresser's.
1. He stayed in bed. (The nurse...)
2. He will apologize to you (I...)
3. He admitted that he was wrong. (We...)

ANSWERS 1. The nurse had him stay in bed. 2. I will get him to apologize to you.3. We had him admit that he was wrong.

Comparatives

Main rule:
Comparatives are used to compare two things and to highlight the superiority, inferiority, or equality of one term compared to another.

	Short Adjectives ( 1 - 2 syllables)	Long Adjectives (3+ syllables)
superiority	ADJ + -ER than fast > X is faster than Y.	MORE + ADJ than expensive > X is more expensive than Y.
equalitity	as ADJ as big > X is as big as Y.
inferiority	less ADJ than beautiful > X is less beautiful than Y.

Examples: Jean is taller than Catherine. Philippe is less tall than Jean. Leïla is as tall as Jean.
young --> younger | tall --> taller | old --> older

NOTES:
> If the adjective ends in "--y" the "y" becomes "i" :
heavy --> heavier | early --> earlier | busy --> busier | healthy --> healthier | chilly --> chillier

> If the adjective ends in "--e" only an "r" is needed:
wise --> wiser | large --> larger | simple --> simpler | late --> later

> If the adjective ends with "single vowel + consonant" the consonant is doubled and one adds "--er" :
big --> bigger | thin --> thinner | hot --> hotter

> Some very common adjectives have irregular comparatives:
good --> better | bad --> worse | far --> farther

TEST - Compare these 2 cars (fictitious data). Use the adjectives.

MERCEDES
(big car)
$200,000

Mini
(small car)
$10,000

1. expensive > .............................................
2. cheap > ...................................................
3. powerful > ...............................................
4. large > ....................................................
5. comfortable > ..........................................
6. fast > ......................................................

ANSWERS (examples) 1. The Mercedes is more expensive than the Mini. 2. The Mini is cheaper than the Mercedes. 3. The Mercedes is more powerful than the Mini. 4. The Mercedes is larger than the Mini. The Mini is not as large as the Mercedes. 5. The Mercedes is more comfortable than the Mini. The Mini is less comfortable than the Mercedes. 6. The Mercedes is faster than the Mini.

THE SUPERLATIVE

When comparing two things one uses the comparative (previous lesson); however, for comparisons in larger groups, you must use the superlative. The superlative designates extremes: the best, the first, the worst, the last, etc.

A. It is the word "most" or the ending "--est" that designates the superlative.

He is the most efficient worker we have.
That is the poorest family in the neighborhood.

B. The compared term (adjective or adverb) will be preceded by the definite article:

He works the fastest of any student I know.
She is the tallest woman in town.

C. Unlike the comparative, the superlative is not followed by "than": instead, one uses "of," followed by the context of the comparison (although this context is sometimes implicit):

It's the best day of my life!
She works the best of the whole class.
She's the one who arrived first.

Irregular forms

Monosyllabic adjectives (and several common two-syllable adjectives) take the ending "--est" in superlatives of superiority, and thus will not use the adverb "most." However, these same adjectives will use "less," like other adjectives, in superlatives of inferiority:
young --> the youngest, tall --> the tallest, old --> the oldest

>If the adjective ends in "--y" the "y" becomes "i":
heavy --> the heaviest, early --> the earliest, busy --> the busiest, healthy --> the healthiest, chilly --> the chilliest

>If the adjective ends in "--e" one adds only "--st" :
wise --> the wisest, large --> the largest, simple --> the simplest, late --> the latest,

>If the adjective ends in "single vowel + consonant," the consonant is doubled and one adds "--est":
red --> the reddest,        big --> the biggest,        thin --> the thinnest,        hot --> the hottest

>Some very common superlatives have irregular forms:
good --> the best,        bad --> the worst,        far --> the farthest,

>Some adjectives exist only in superlative form:
the first,        the last

TEST

Fill in the blanks with a comparative or a superlative :

Canada is (big) ________than the USA but China is (populous) ________country in the world. | b. We stayed at (cheap) ________ hotel in the town but my cousin’s campsite was (cheap) ________ than our hotel. | c. January is generally (bad) ________ than December but February is (cold) ________ month. | d. English is (easy) ________ than German. | e. Chinese is (difficult) ________ language. | f. Heathrow is one of (busy) ________ airports in Europe. | g. My father thinks that the Beatles were (good) ________ than the Rolling Stones, but in my opinion, U2 is (great) ________ band.

ANSWERS:
Canada is (big) bigger than the USA but China is (populous) the most populous country in the world. | b. We stayed at (cheap) the cheapest hotel in the town but my cousin’s campsite was (cheap) cheaper than our hotel. | c. January is generally (bad) worse than December but February is (cold) the coldest month. | d. English is (easy) easier than German. | e. Chinese is (difficult) the most difficult language. | f. Heathrow is one of (busy) the busiest airports in Europe. | g. My father thinks that the Beatles were (good) better than the Rolling Stones, but in my opinion, U2 is (great) the greatest band.

THE COMPARATIVE vs. THE SUPERLATIVE

	COMPARATIVES	SUPERLATIVES
MAIN USE	Comparatives are used to compare two things and to highlight the superiority, inferiority, or equality of one term compared to another.	For comparisons in larger groups, you must use the superlative. The superlative designates extremes: the best, the first, the worst, the last, etc.
SUPERIORITY	a) Short adjectives: adj + -ER THAN Peter is taller than Sandra. b) Long adjectives: MORE + adj + THAN A Ferrari is more expensive than a Mini.	Short & long adjectives: THE MOST + adjective This is the most pleasant place on Earth!
EQUALITY	Short & long adjectives: AS... adjective... AS English is as easy as German.	Doesn't exist
INFERIORITY	Short & long adjectives: LESS + adjectif + THAN July is less cold than January.	Short & long adjectives: THE LEAST + adjective This is the least interesting movie of the year!

NOTES:

Short adjectives: 1 syllable (eg: young) + 2-syllable adjectives ending in -y (eg: pretty)
Long adjectives: all the other adjectives

COMPARATIVES:
> If the adjective ends in "--y" the "y" becomes "i" : heavy --> heavier
> If the adjective ends in "--e" only an "r" is needed: wise --> wiser
> If the adjective ends with "single vowel + consonant" the consonant is doubled and one adds "--er" : big --> bigger
> Some very common adjectives have irregular comparatives: good --> better | bad --> worse | far --> farther

SUPERLATIVES:
Irregular forms: good --> the best · bad --> the worst · far --> the farthest

> TEST
COMPARATIVES (+ superiority, = equality, - inferiority).
a) Sandra is ___________ (+ pretty) Sophia.
b) This song is ___________ (+ good) the previous one.
c) My boat is ___________ (= expensive) your boat.
d) This book is ___________ (= bad) that one.
e) Jurassic Park is ___________ (- frightening) Star Wars.
f) The Lost World is ___________ (- good) Jurassic Park I.

SUPERLATIVES (+ superiority, = equality, - inferiority).
a) Peter is ___________ (+ intelligent) student in the school!
b) This place is ___________ (- interesting) of the town.

> ANSWERS
COMPARATIVES
a) Sandra is prettier than Sophia.
b) This song is better than the previous one.
c) My boat is as expensive as your boat.
d) This book is as bad as that one.
e) Jurassic Park is less frightening than Star Wars.
f) The Lost World is less good than Jurassic Park I.

SUPERLATIVES
a) Peter is the most intelligent student in the school!
b) This museum is the least interesting place of the town.

Direct and indirect discourse

When one reports what others have said word for word, this is called "direct discourse." It is generally signalled by the presence of quotation marks:

Philippe said, "I'll come if I have the time."
My roommate said, "Clean the place up, or get out of here!"

When one paraphrases the words of others, writing them so as to avoid direct quotation, this is called "indirect discourse."

Indirect discourse entails certain changes:
A. Quotation marks are not used:

direct discourse: He told me, "You're stupid"
indirect discourse: He told me that I was stupid.

B. When the verb in the reported discourse is conjugated, is it generally preceded by "that"; however, the inclusion of "that" is optional

She said that she would be late.
OR: She said she would be late.
They informed us that the plane was delayed.
OR: They informed us the plane was delayed.

C. Imperative forms, when recounted in indirect discourse, generally become infinitive constructions:

direct discourse: He told me, "Write to me."
indirect discourse: He told me to write him.

direct discourse: I told them, "Get out of here!"
indirect discourse: I told them to get out of here.

D. When a quotation is put in indirect discourse, care must be taken to verify that verb tenses reflect the change in temporal context:

direct discourse: She said, "I will be on time."
indirect discourse: She said she would be on time.

direct discourse: When he called he said, "I am at the airport"
indirect discourse: When he called he said he was at the airport.

TEST
>> indirect discourse

Sarah said, "I am ill."
Paul told me, "Go to the cinema and buy two tickets".
Thierry explained to us, "I went to Spain during my holidays".
John said, "I will buy a new computer soon".
My father told me, "Do your homework!"

ANSWERS

Sarah said (that) she was ill. 2. Paul told me to go to the cinema and buy two tickets. 3. Thierry explained to us (that) he had gone to Spain during his holidays. 4. John said (that) he would buy a new computer soon. 5. My father told me to do my homework.

Negative constructions

Everybody knows "not". Other negative constructions are possible. Because English does not allow double or triple negatives, it is important to avoid using "not" with other negative constructions. When "not" is included, use the affirmative forms of other adverbs:

No more / not... any more

I want no more of your money
I don't want any more of your money.

No one / not... anyone

No one called tonight.
I don't want to see anyone tonight.

Never / not... ever

She never wants to see him again.
She doesn't ever want to see him again.

Nothing / not... anything

He does nothing at all.
Can't you do anything right?

Nowhere / not... anywhere

Where are you going? -- Nowhere.
I don't want to go anywhere.

Not a single / not... a single

Not a single letter arrived today.
He doesn't have a single idea what we're doing.

Neither... nor...

We neither ate nor drank during the ceremony.
I like neither tomatoes nor zucchini.

Only (always placed before the element one whichs to limit):

She only has seven dollars.
We were only playing.
They were the only ones to come

TEST - Build a sentence with these words:
1. all - at - he - bought - hasn't - anything
2. like - meat - I - nor - neither - vegetables.
3. anywhere - we - don't - go - to - want

ANSWERS 1. He hasn't bought anything at all. 2. I like neither vegetables nor meat. 3. We don't want to go anywhere.

The Passive Voice

Main use:
It is used to put the emphasis on the person or the thing which is affected by an action. It is used in sentences where the object of the action is more important than the people who perform the action.

Syntax: Subject + BE (tense of the active sentence) + Past participle

Important: If you need to tell who is doing the action, use BY
America was discovered by Christopher Columbus in 1492.

Examples:
Present (be+ing):
Peter is eating an apple.
>An apple is being eaten by Peter.

Present Simple:
They make shoes in this factory.
>Shoes are made in this factory.

Preterite:
They built this bridge in the 13^th century.
>This bridge was built in the 13^th century.
and so on...

TEST - Put the following sentences into the passive voice.
1. They built the house in two months. > help: The house...
2. We will carry the luggage upstairs.
3. Everyday John feeds the cat.
4. They have not caught the murderer yet.
5. “The fog caused the accident. The police called the ambulance. The insurance will cover the damage.

ANSWERS 1. The house was built in two months. 2. The luggage will be carried upstairs. 3. Everyday the cat is fed by John. 4. The murder has not been caught yet. 5. The accident was caused by the fog. The ambulance was called by the police. The damage will be covered by the insurance.

Other interrogative words

> When?
I bought a new car yesterday. When did you buy a new car?

> Where?
I went to Paris. Where did you go to?

> How much + Singular / How many + Plural
I ate two apples. How many apples did you eat?

> Why? I went to the hospital because I was ill. Why did you go the hospital?

> Which

when a choice must be made between 2 things:

Which film do you want to see? "Impossible Mission" or "Pretty Woman"?
Here are two pizzas. Which one do you prefer?

TEST

Ask a question about the underlined words:

I saw that movie in a big cinema.
I will see my girlfriend next summer.
I would like to buy three bottles of milk.
I love this film because I love Tom Cruise.

About last week's lesson (revision)...

Sandra stole my keys!
I ate a big cake.
I spoke to Sarah.

ANSWERS:
1. Where did you see that movie? 2. When will your see your girlfriend? 3. How many bottles of milk would you like to buy? 4. Why do you love this film? 5. Who stole your keys? 6. What did you eat? 7. Who did you speak to? To whom did you speak?

ASKING A QUESTION

A) THE RULE
interrogative pronoun/adverb + auxiliary + subject + verb + ...

interrogative pronoun/adverb	auxiliary	subject	verb	+
Why	did	you	go	to Spain?

Exception: when WHO is the subject of the sentence:

interrogative pronoun/adverb	auxiliary	subject	verb	+
Who			went	to Spain?

B) THE MAIN INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS / ADVERBS

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS / ADVERBS	SENTENCE	QUESTION
WHO	Peter has broken the vase.	Who has broken the vase?
WHAT	John took an orange.	What did John take?
WHICH	Which pullover do you want? The blue one or the red one?
WHEN	I went to Spain in 1998.	When did you go to Spain?
WHY	I am sad because my dog is ill.	Why are you sad?
WHAT... FOR	I save money to buy a new car.	What do you save money for?
HOW + adjective
HOW	I go to Belgium by car.	How do you go to Belgium?
HOW FAR	I am 5 miles from Paris.	How far are you from Paris?
HOW LONG	This movie lasts for 2 hours.	How long does this movie last?
HOW MUCH + singulier	I want two bottles of milk.	How much milk do you want?
HOW MANY + pluriel	I want three potatoes.	How many potatoes do you want?
HOW OFTEN	I go to Spain twice a week.	How often do you go to Spain?
HOW OLD	I am 24 years old.	How old are you?

> TEST : Ask a question about the underlined words:
Yesterday, Sandra went to the shopping center
She bought a beautiful dress.
She got back home. She was unhappy because it was too large.
Her father phoned the shop.
He went back to the shop.

> ANSWERS
When did Sandra go to the shopping center?
What did she buy?
Why was she unhappy?
Who phoned the shop?
Where did he go back to?

Non-defining relative clauses

	Person	Object
Subject	who	which
Object	who, whom	which
Possessive	whose	whose, of which

Examples:
>> SUBJECT:
Frank Zappa, who was one of the most creative artists in rock 'n roll, came from California.

>> OBJECT:
Frank invited Janet, who (whom) he had met in Japan, to the party.
Peter brought his favorite antique book, which he had found at a flee market, to show his friends.

>> POSSESSIVE:
Olympia, whose name is taken from the Greek, is the capitol of Washington State.
The singer, whose most recent recording has had much success, is signing autographs.
The artist, whose name he could not remember, was one of the best he had ever seen.

>> NOTE:
In non-defining relative clauses, which can be used to refer to an entire clause.
Example: He came for the weekend wearing only some shorts and a t-shirt, which was a stupid thing to do.

TEST
Choose the right pronoun:
1. The girl, _____________ is sitting on the bench, is called Sarah.
2. The dog, _____________ John has just bought, is very clever.
3. The actor, _____________ films are very famous, is very happy.

Build 1 sentence with a relative clause:
4. Peter has met his girlfriend. She is a journalist.
5. His house is located near London. It very large.
6. Peter has just bought a car. He has found it abroad..

ANSWERS
1. who - 2. which - 3. whose - 4. Peter has met his girlfriend, who is a journalist. - 5. His house, which is located near London, is very large. - 6. Peter has just bought a car, which he has found abroad.

Defining Relative Clauses VS. Non-defining relative clauses

>Non-defining Relative Clauses

They provide interesting additional information which is not essential to understanding the meaning of the sentence.

Example: Mrs. Jackson, who is very intelligent, lives on the corner.

"Mrs Johnson lives on the corner" provides a good piece of information. We also know that she is very intelligent, thanks to the relative clause (another interesting piece of information).

NB: YOU MUST USE COMMAS!

>Defining Relative Clauses

- their information is crucial in understanding the meaning of the sentence.
- if you remove them, the sentence has a different meaning or no meaning at all.

Examples:

The woman who lives in apartment No. 34 has been arrested.

What woman? The woman who lives in apartment n°34, not another woman.

A defining relative clause clearly defines who or what we are talking about. Without this information, it would be difficult to know who or what is meant.

NB: NO COMMAS!

Defining Relative Clauses

	Person	Object
Subject	who, that	which, that
Object	Ø, that (also: who, whom)	Ø, that (also: which)
Possessive	whose	whose, of which

Examples:

>Subject:
Example: Children who (that) play with fire are in great danger of harm.
The man who bought all the books by Hemingway has died.

Which is better? which/who OR that?
> who and which: written English
> that: oral English

>Object:
Example: That's the boy (Ø , that, who, whom) I invited to the party.
There's the house (Ø, that, which) I'd like to buy.

>Possessive:
Example: He's the man whose car was stolen last week.
They were sure to visit the town whose location (OR the location of which) was little known.

TEST

Choose the right pronoun:
1. It is the book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I've just read.
2. She is the girl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sat next to me in the bus.
3. They are the people . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . helped me.
4. This is the dog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . scared me.

Build one sentence (containing a defining relative clause) with these two sentences:
5. A robot is a machine. It can replace human workers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
6. A vet is a doctor. He treats animals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...
7. Pets are animals. They are kept at home as companions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...
8. A robot is a machine. It looks like a human being. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Defining Relative Clauses VS. Non-defining relative clauses

>Non-defining Relative Clauses

They provide interesting additional information which is not essential to understanding the meaning of the sentence.

Example: Mrs. Jackson, who is very intelligent, lives on the corner.

"Mrs Johnson lives on the corner" provides a good piece of information. We also know that she is very intelligent, thanks to the relative clause (another interesting piece of information).

NB: YOU MUST USE COMMAS!

>Defining Relative Clauses

- their information is crucial in understanding the meaning of the sentence.
- if you remove them, the sentence has a different meaning or no meaning at all.

Examples:

The woman who lives in apartment No. 34 has been arrested.

What woman? The woman who lives in apartment n°34, not another woman.

A defining relative clause clearly defines who or what we are talking about. Without this information, it would be difficult to know who or what is meant.

NB: NO COMMAS!

Defining Relative Clauses

	Person	Object
Subject	who, that	which, that
Object	Ø, that (also: who, whom)	Ø, that (also: which)
Possessive	whose	whose, of which

Examples:

>Subject:
Example: Children who (that) play with fire are in great danger of harm.
The man who bought all the books by Hemingway has died.

Which is better? which/who OR that?
> who and which: written English
> that: oral English

>Object:
Example: That's the boy (Ø , that, who, whom) I invited to the party.
There's the house (Ø, that, which) I'd like to buy.

>Possessive:
Example: He's the man whose car was stolen last week.
They were sure to visit the town whose location (OR the location of which) was little known.

TEST

Making suggestions

4 ways to tell your friends what you would like to do in the next few days:

1) WHAT ABOUT/HOW ABOUT ... + Base form + -ING

What about going to the pictures tonight?

How about going to the pictures tonight?

2) WHY + Negative

Why don't we go to the swimming-pool tomorrow?

3) IMPERATIVE: Let's + Base form

Let's go to the restaurant now!

4) COULD

We could visit Paris next week.

TEST

Put these words into the right order to build a sentence.

tea / have / 's / let / cup / a / of
a / car / about / buying / huge / what / ?
don't / why / we / together / cinema / to / the / ? / go
could / take / we / train / the / Madrid / to

ANSWERS 1) Let's have a cup of tea. 2) What about buying a huge car? 3) Why don't we go to the cinema together? 4) We could take the train to Madrid.

Easy english grammer learner Final step about sentences

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